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sp³ orbital evidenceLive observation

Mix one s and three p orbitals to form four tetrahedral sp³ directions.

MoleculeH—H
Hybrid type100%
Bond angle−28 kJ/mol
ShapeAttractive
3D sp³ Hybridization LaboratoryPaused
Mode

How do four sp³ directions make 3D shapes?

One s and three p orbitals combine into four sp³ directions. Rotate the tetrahedral frame; compare bonds with lone-pair domains.

  1. One s + three p → four sp³ orbitals.
  2. The ideal tetrahedral angle is 109.5°.
  3. Lone pairs affect molecular shape and angle.

sp³ orbital controls

Drag the scene to rotate the orbitals. The gold domains represent lone pairs; the cool-colored lobes point toward bonds.

Evidence

sp³ directions4 domains
Ideal bond angle109.5°
Lone pairs0 lone pairs
Molecular shapeTetrahedral

3D camera and focus

Drag to rotate the orbitals in 3D.

Domain comparison

Teacher demonstrations

Guided visual lecture

Chapter 1 of 80%

Ready. The first ten seconds define sp³ hybridization with a transforming 3D tetrahedron.

External recording: share this browser tab with tab audio enabled. No microphone is used.

1. What is hybridization?

Watch: One s and three p become four tetrahedral sp³ directions.

Chapters

sp³ hybridization and molecular shape

Orbital conservation: 1 s + 3 p → 4 sp³ orbitals.

Ideal electron domains: four sp³ directions point to tetrahedron corners; ideal angle ≈ 109.5°.

Bonding and lone pairs: a head-on overlap gives a σ bond; a lone pair is an electron domain without an attached atom.

Observed bond angles: CH₄ ≈ 109.5°; NH₃ ≈ 107.3°; H₂O ≈ 104.5°. Lone-pair repulsion helps explain the reductions.

This is an educational valence-bond model of electron-density directions, not solid orbitals or literal electron trajectories. The measured molecule angles should not be confused with the ideal tetrahedral domain angle.

Learning objectives

  • Explain how one s and three p make four sp³ orbitals.
  • Rotate and recognize tetrahedral 3D directions.
  • Distinguish electron-domain geometry from molecular shape.
  • Relate lone-pair count to the observed bond angle.

Suggested investigations

  • Rotate methane and locate four equivalent bonds.
  • Compare one gold lone-pair domain in NH₃ with two in H₂O.
  • Follow the angle arc as you rotate each molecule.
  • Hide bonds to inspect the four orbital domains.

Questions for exploration

  • Why is an ammonia molecule pyramidal instead of tetrahedral?
  • Why is water bent despite four electron domains?
  • How does increasing lone-pair count affect the measured angle?

Teacher whiteboard

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