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Orbital evidenceLive observation

Mix atomic orbitals to reveal directional bonding and lone pairs.

MoleculeH—H
Hybrid type100%
Bond angle−28 kJ/mol
ShapeAttractive
3D Hybridization LaboratoryPaused
Mode

How do orbitals gain direction?

Hybridization combines atomic orbitals on one atom into directional hybrids. Count electron domains, then rotate the resulting shape.

  1. sp gives two directions.
  2. sp² gives three planar directions.
  3. sp³ gives four tetrahedral directions.

Orbital controls

Drag the scene to rotate the orbitals. The two colors on each p orbital show opposite wave-function phases, not electric charges.

Evidence

Hybrid directions4 directions
Ideal bond angle109.5°
Lone pairs0 lone pairs
Molecular shapeTetrahedral

3D camera and focus

Drag to rotate the orbitals in 3D.

Orbital count

Teacher demonstrations

Guided visual lecture

Chapter 1 of 80%

Ready. The first ten seconds define hybridization with a transforming 3D orbital model.

External recording: share this browser tab with tab audio enabled. No microphone is used.

1. What is hybridization?

Watch: Round s and directional p orbitals become hybrid directions.

Chapters

Hybridization and geometry

Orbital count: number of hybrid orbitals = number of s and p orbitals mixed.

sp: 1s + 1p → 2 sp; ideal angle 180°; two p remain.

sp²: 1s + 2p → 3 sp²; ideal angle 120°; one p remains.

sp³: 1s + 3p → 4 sp³; ideal angle 109.5°; no p remain.

Multiple bonds: C=C has 1 σ + 1 π; C≡C has 1 σ + 2 π.

This is a valence-bond model of orbital direction, not literal motion of rigid lobes. Lone pairs can make observed angles smaller than the ideal electron-domain angle.

Lone-pair examples: NH₃ has about 107.3°; H₂O has about 104.5°, both below the ideal tetrahedral 109.5°.

This model represents electron-density directions. Shapes are educational probability visuals, not solid orbitals or electron trajectories.

Learning objectives

  • Explain what orbital mixing means in the valence-bond model.
  • Compare sp, sp², and sp³ directions.
  • Identify sigma and pi overlap.
  • Explain how lone pairs affect molecular shape.

Suggested investigations

  • Rotate methane and find four tetrahedral directions.
  • Switch to BF₃ and view the planar orbitals edge-on.
  • Compare ethene and ethyne pi clouds.
  • Compare CH₄, NH₃, and H₂O lone pairs.

Questions for exploration

  • Why are sp³ orbitals directional?
  • What p orbitals remain after sp² and sp mixing?
  • Why are water and methane different shapes?

Teacher whiteboard

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